Sesame and Tahini — Body Handbook

Food · §349

Sesame and Tahini

Two tablespoons of tahini stirred into a sauce. A sprinkle of seeds on tomorrow's salad. A spoon in your oatmeal. Do that most days for a couple of months and the numbers move — around seven points off systolic blood pressure, a modest trim on LDL cholesterol, antioxidant markers improving — while you don't actually feel any different. The active fraction is two plant compounds called sesame lignans, the right kind of fat, and a respectable dose of magnesium and calcium riding along. It's the cheapest cardiovascular nudge in your kitchen.

Do · Daily Evidence Emerging Chapter Food

Sesame isn't doing one big thing in your body. It's doing four small ones at once, and they happen to stack.

The first is a pair of compounds — sesamin and sesamolin, collectively sesame lignans — that nudge your liver toward burning fat and away from making cholesterol. They flip switches on two cellular controllers called PPARα and AMPK that govern how a cell handles fats, and they partly block the enzyme that makes cholesterol from scratch. On a blood panel, this shows up as lower LDL Sun et al. 2022.

The second is the fat itself. About half the weight of a sesame seed is fat, and almost all of it is the unsaturated kind — the kind that, when it goes into your cooking and your sauces, displaces the saturated fats that drive LDL the other direction.

The third is minerals. A heaped tablespoon of tahini delivers roughly 60 milligrams of magnesium (about 15% of a day's need) and a similar load of calcium USDA 2024. Magnesium relaxes the smooth muscle in your blood vessels — one of the reasons the blood-pressure number moves; calcium is brick for your bones. Neither dose is heroic. Both add up across a week.

The fourth is the antioxidant story. The lignans (and a third one, sesamol) measurably reduce a marker of cellular damage in your blood called malondialdehyde, and raise your blood's overall antioxidant capacity in trial after trial Wichitsranoi et al. 2011.

What the trials actually show

The clearest number is for blood pressure. A pooled review of eight controlled trials and 843 people found that regular sesame consumption dropped systolic blood pressure by about 7.8 mmHg and diastolic by about 5.8 mmHg Khosravi-Boroujeni et al. 2017. That is roughly what a single low-dose blood-pressure pill does.

Cholesterol is messier. Whole-sesame trials in mixed populations don't move LDL by themselves; the cleaner signal is from trials using just the purified lignan, where LDL drops about 8 mg/dL and total cholesterol about 11 mg/dL Sun et al. 2022. In people whose numbers were already elevated — type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome — the drop is much bigger Asgary et al. 2023.

For inflammation, the pooled trials show a real drop in interleukin-6 (one of the messenger molecules that drives long-running inflammation) and reductions in hs-CRP in people whose inflammation was elevated to start with Rafiee et al. 2021. The pattern is the same shape as the cholesterol one: sesame moves the needle most for people whose numbers had the most room to fall.

The antioxidant story is the most consistent across populations. Malondialdehyde down, total antioxidant capacity up — Thai pre-hypertensive adults, Iranian patients with knee pain, the same direction in every trial Wichitsranoi et al. 2011 Helli et al. 2015.

And then there is the one trial that has used tahini specifically. Twenty healthy men ate 50 grams of tahini after an overnight fast; four hours later their diastolic blood pressure was lower and their blood vessels were measurably relaxing more freely Sakketou et al. 2021. A single meal, a single afternoon — but the same direction as the chronic-feeding studies.

The dose, in real food

The trial doses cluster at 25 to 40 grams a day, sustained for at least four weeks. That is two heaped tablespoons of tahini, or about a tablespoon and a half of whole seeds. Below that the effect drifts toward noise. Above it, no extra benefit has shown up in trials.

Sesame became the ninth recognised major food allergen in the United States in January 2023, when the FDA's mandatory-labelling rule for it went into effect FDA 2023. About one in 400 adults and children — roughly 1.5 million Americans — react to it.

Two things people get wrong

"Sesame is the best plant source of calcium." Half-true. Whole sesame seeds contain about 975 mg of calcium per 100 grams — more than the same weight of dairy USDA 2024. But most of that calcium sits in the seed's hull bound to a compound called oxalate, and oxalate-bound calcium is hard for your gut to absorb. The fraction your body actually takes up lands around 20–25%, lower than dairy's 30–35%. And the tahini you're most likely to find on a supermarket shelf is made from hulled seeds, which carry roughly half the total calcium but in a more accessible form. The honest version: sesame is a real calcium contributor, not a calcium replacement for someone whose intake is genuinely low.

"Sesame oil and sesame seeds are the same thing." They aren't. The oil carries the lignans and the unsaturated fats, so most of the blood-pressure and cholesterol story travels with it. But the oil drops the calcium, the magnesium, the fibre, and the phytosterols. If your only sesame is a teaspoon of toasted sesame oil on a stir-fry once a week, you're getting a small slice of the cardiovascular benefit and almost none of the mineral story.

Why "I tried it and nothing happened"

Two common reasons. First, the dose was too low. A pinch on a bagel once a week is a flavour, not an intervention; the trial effects show up at 25 grams a day and up, daily, for weeks. Second, the starting point matters more than people expect. The biggest blood-pressure and cholesterol drops happen in people whose numbers were elevated to start with. If your blood pressure is already 110/70 and your LDL is 80, sesame's effect on you is smaller — there isn't as much room for the numbers to fall.

How tahini actually slots in

Two tablespoons of tahini — the dose the trials used — costs maybe a quarter. A jar runs 5 to 10 dollars and gives roughly 30 servings. The Levantine and Eastern Mediterranean kitchens have been built around tahini for centuries, so the entry points are well-worn:

Hummus. Chickpeas, garlic, lemon, tahini. A generous scoop with vegetables or pita carries the daily dose.
Tahini sauce. Tahini, lemon juice, crushed garlic, water, salt, whisked until creamy. Pours over roasted vegetables, falafel, grilled meat, or a grain bowl.
Salad dressing. Tahini thickens a vinaigrette; replace half the olive oil in a lemon dressing with tahini and see what happens.
Toast. Tahini and honey on sourdough. A Middle-Eastern breakfast staple.
Smoothies and oatmeal. A tablespoon stirred in adds nutty depth, calcium, and magnesium.
Whole seeds. Toasted, sprinkled on stir-fries, rice bowls, salads, breads. Buy them already toasted if you'd rather skip the step.

Adjacent topics worth knowing about: olive oil, the other Mediterranean-pattern fat with stronger long-term mortality evidence; the Mediterranean diet as a whole pattern, where sesame sits naturally; magnesium and calcium intake for bone health; LDL cholesterol as the headline cardiovascular risk number; and sesame allergy management for the small fraction of readers who can't eat any of this.

Substance and claimed effects

Sesame seeds (Sesamum indicum) and tahini, the smooth paste made by milling roasted hulled seeds, eaten as a regular part of the diet (a few tablespoons most days). The matrix delivers four bioactives: the lignans sesamin and sesamolin (with their metabolite sesamol); a roughly 50% lipid fraction dominated by oleic and linoleic acid (mono- and polyunsaturated); concentrated calcium (≈975 mg / 100 g whole seed; ~88 mg per tablespoon of unhulled seeds, lower for hulled) and magnesium (~58 mg per tablespoon, ≈15% of the RDA); and phytosterols and fibre USDA 2024. The entry covers consequences across LDL cholesterol, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, antioxidant markers (MDA, TAC, SOD), bone-relevant minerals (calcium and magnesium intake), and inflammatory biomarkers (hs-CRP, IL-6). Glycaemic control in T2D is documented but treated as out-of-scope (it sits in the diabetes entries); allergy is in-scope only as a contraindication.

Evidence by addressing question

Mechanism

The lignans are the dominant non-fatty-acid mechanism. Sesamin and sesamolin activate PPARα and AMPK, upregulating fatty-acid β-oxidation and cholesterol efflux while suppressing lipogenesis; in hepatocyte models they reduce intracellular cholesterol synthesis and uptake Sun et al. 2022. Sesamin and sesamolin also inhibit HMG-CoA reductase expression (the rate-limiting enzyme of cholesterol synthesis) and partially inhibit CYP46A1 (cholesterol 24-hydroxylase). The blood-pressure effect is plausibly multi-pathway: lignan-driven endothelial relaxation (improved NO bioavailability), polyunsaturated-fat displacement of saturated cooking fat (when used as oil), and magnesium-mediated vascular smooth-muscle relaxation. Antioxidant effects come from sesamol (the strongest direct radical scavenger of the three) and from sesamin's induction of endogenous antioxidant enzymes (SOD, catalase). For inflammation, sesamol suppresses NF-κB signalling in macrophage models, downstream-reducing CRP and IL-6 production. For bone, the calcium + magnesium load directly contributes intake; the lignans' phytoestrogen activity has been hypothesised to additionally slow postmenopausal bone resorption, but the human evidence is thin Eftekhar Sadat et al. 2013.

Evidence

LDL cholesterol. The 2016 meta-analysis of 10 controlled trials of whole sesame fractions found a non-significant LDL reduction of -0.15 mmol/L (p = 0.39), but TC fell significantly (-0.32 mmol/L) and HDL rose; effects were largest with sesame oil and in metabolic disease populations Khalesi et al. 2016. The 2022 sesamin-isolate meta-analysis (7 RCTs, 212 participants) showed cleaner LDL reductions of -8.4 mg/dL and TC reductions of -10.9 mg/dL Sun et al. 2022. In T2D specifically, sesame consumption dropped LDL by -29.7 mg/dL Asgary et al. 2023. The combination of whole-seed + sesamin signals points the same way: real but modest, larger when baseline lipids are worse.

Blood pressure. The 2017 meta-analysis of 8 controlled trials, 843 participants, reported systolic BP -7.8 mmHg (95% CI -14.1 to -1.5) and diastolic -5.8 mmHg (-9.6 to -2.1) Khosravi-Boroujeni et al. 2017. The sesamin-isolate meta-analysis confirmed -3.7 mmHg systolic but no diastolic effect from sesamin alone Sun et al. 2022. The Sankar trial in 328 medicated hypertensives using sesame oil as the sole cooking oil for 60 days allowed the daily nifedipine dose to drop from 22.7 mg to 7.45 mg while maintaining BP control Sankar et al. 2006; the Devarajan blend trial (sesame oil + rice bran oil, 20:80) found SBP -12.8% and DBP -13.5% in mild-to-moderate hypertensives Devarajan et al. 2016. Wichitsranoi's black-sesame-meal trial in pre-hypertensives (2.52 g/day) reduced SBP by 6 mmHg over 4 weeks Wichitsranoi et al. 2011. A tahini-specific acute-feeding trial in healthy males (50 g, single dose) reduced diastolic BP and improved flow-mediated dilatation 4 hours postprandially Sakketou et al. 2021 — the only direct tahini trial in the literature.

Antioxidant markers. The Helli osteoarthritis RCT (40 g/day for 2 months, n=50) reduced serum malondialdehyde (lipid-peroxidation marker) and raised total antioxidant capacity Helli et al. 2015. The Wichitsranoi trial showed parallel TAC rises and MDA falls with black sesame meal Wichitsranoi et al. 2011. A small soccer-player trial (40 g/day, 28 days) reported MDA -55% and SOD +14% — a large effect size to interpret cautiously given the active-recovery population.

Bone-relevant minerals. No RCT of sesame intake on bone-mineral-density endpoints exists. The evidence is intake-based: one tablespoon of unhulled sesame seeds delivers ~88 mg calcium (≈9% of the adult RDA) and ~60 mg magnesium (≈15%); two tablespoons of tahini delivers ~130 mg calcium and similar magnesium USDA 2024. Calcium bioavailability from sesame is ~20–25% (lower than dairy's 30–35%) because much of the calcium in the hull is bound as oxalate; tahini from hulled seeds has lower total calcium but a more bioavailable fraction. Magnesium is not similarly compromised. The bone case for sesame is therefore strong as a contributor to intake and weak as a stand-alone osteoporosis intervention.

Inflammatory markers. The 2021 meta-analysis of 7 RCTs (310 participants) found a significant IL-6 reduction with sesame consumption; CRP and TNF-α were not significantly affected in pooled analysis, though subgroup analyses (elevated-baseline-CRP populations, sesamin-isolate trials, female-only trials, Asian cohorts) showed CRP reductions Rafiee et al. 2021. The Helli KOA trial reported a 53% drop in hs-CRP and parallel IL-6 reduction in the sesame arm vs. control Helli et al. 2015. A broader 2024 dose-response meta-analysis confirmed significant CRP and IL-6 reductions in elevated-baseline-inflammation populations.

Protocol

Effective doses across trials cluster at 25–40 g/day of whole sesame seed (≈two heaped tablespoons of tahini, or ~1.5 tablespoons of whole seed) for ≥4 weeks. The Helli KOA trial used 40 g/day; the Wichitsranoi pre-hypertensive trial used 2.52 g/day of black sesame meal extract, an outlier; the sesame-oil cardiometabolic trials used 35 g/day as the sole cooking oil. The acute tahini trial used 50 g as a single bolus Sakketou et al. 2021. No trial has compared intermittent vs. continuous dosing; consistency-of-pattern (Mediterranean / Middle-Eastern dietary frequency) is the de-facto recommendation.

Contraindications

Sesame became the ninth recognised major food allergen in the US under the FASTER Act of 2021; mandatory labelling took effect 1 January 2023 FDA 2023. Prevalence is ~0.23% of US adults and children, ~1.5 million people. Reactions span urticaria to anaphylaxis; cross-reactivity with tree nuts and peanuts is reported. Tahini is calorie-dense (~600 kcal / 100 g, ~90 kcal per tablespoon) — a moderate concern only in weight-management contexts. No clinically meaningful interaction with blood thinners is documented despite sesame's vitamin K content; magnesium load is trivial relative to a meaningful clinical dose for kidney-disease management.

Misconceptions

The widespread "sesame is the highest-calcium food" claim conflates total content with absorbed calcium. Unhulled sesame seeds are calcium-dense (~975 mg/100 g) but a meaningful fraction is bound as oxalate and only ~20–25% is absorbed; hulled-seed tahini (the common supermarket product) carries roughly half the calcium of the unhulled form but in a more accessible state. A second misconception treats sesame oil and sesame seeds as interchangeable: the oil carries the lignans and PUFAs but none of the calcium, magnesium, fibre, or phytosterols — they're different interventions delivering different fractions of the same plant. A third overclaims phytoestrogen-driven menopausal benefits; the human data here is exploratory.

Failure modes

The two common reasons sesame "doesn't do anything" for someone: (1) the dose is too low — a sprinkle on a salad is not a metabolic intervention, and trial doses cluster at ≥25 g/day; (2) the baseline matters — the largest LDL and BP effects appear in metabolic-disease and hypertensive populations, with smaller or null effects in normolipidaemic, normotensive readers. A third failure mode is substitution rather than addition: replacing olive oil with sesame oil for cooking is not a meaningful upgrade (both are good); replacing butter or refined seed oil with sesame oil is.

Practicalities

Tahini is widely available in supermarkets at $5–10 per 450-g jar; that jar provides ~30 servings of two tablespoons. Whole sesame seeds are cheaper still ($2–4 per 250 g). Storage: tahini separates (oil floats) and should be stirred before use; refrigerate after opening to slow oxidative rancidity in the PUFA fraction. Culinary versatility is high — tahini works as a sauce base (mixed with lemon juice and garlic), a salad-dressing thickener, a spread on toast with honey, a stir-in for hummus and baba ganoush, a marinade component, and a banana-with-tahini-and-dates snack popular in Middle-Eastern cuisine. Whole seeds toast for sprinkling; sesame oil (toasted) is a finishing oil, not a cooking oil at high heat. The friction floor is low: no preparation, no timing, no schedule.

History / cross-cultural

Sesame is among the oldest cultivated oilseed crops, with archaeological evidence of domestication ~4,000–4,600 years ago in the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia. Tahini is documented in the 13th-century Arabic cookbook Kitab al-Tabikh and remains a staple of Levantine, Turkish, Greek, and North African cuisines. Halva — sweetened, set tahini — is a cross-cultural dessert across the same region. The PREDIMED Mediterranean-diet RCT, which demonstrated cardiovascular risk reduction with high-nut/seed Mediterranean patterns, used sesame within its broader seed/nut frame Estruch et al. 2013; the MIND diet for cognitive decline lists sesame seeds among recommended seeds.

Payoff

Time scaffold from the trial evidence: at 2–4 weeks, antioxidant markers (MDA, TAC) shift measurably in trial conditions; at 4–8 weeks, LDL and BP changes consolidate in metabolic-disease and hypertensive populations Khosravi-Boroujeni et al. 2017 Khalesi et al. 2016; at 2–3 months, hs-CRP and IL-6 in elevated-baseline-inflammation populations decline Helli et al. 2015. The reader doesn't feel any of these changes; the payoff is a slightly better cardiovascular and bone-health trajectory at population scale, not a felt-experience shift.

Out-of-scope

Pure sesamin isolate as a supplement is on the periphery — the cleanest signal is from sesamin trials but the entry's substance is whole sesame / tahini as food, not a capsule. Sesame seed allergy management is in the allergy literature; sesame's effect on glycaemic control in T2D is real but covered by the diabetes nutrition entries. Hulled vs. unhulled tahini distinction is included in misconceptions but not deepened; halva is in scope as a sesame product but not separately analysed.

The credibility range

Optimist case. Sesame and tahini deliver a stacked cardiometabolic intervention: lignans with documented PPARα/AMPK activation and cholesterol-pathway effects in vitro and in vivo; ~50% of mass as unsaturated fat; concentrated magnesium and calcium; phytosterols and fibre. The blood-pressure meta-analysis is unambiguous (SBP -7.8, DBP -5.8 mmHg, n=843), the inflammation meta-analysis confirms IL-6 reduction, the antioxidant marker shifts replicate across populations, and at-scale culinary precedent (Levantine cuisine) demonstrates daily-consumption safety. For a hypertensive or dyslipidaemic reader, the effect-size magnitudes (7+ mmHg, 8+ mg/dL LDL) are not nothing — comparable to a single antihypertensive at low dose. The cost is trivial and the food is delicious; this is a near-free cardiovascular intervention.

Skeptic case. The published-trial base is overwhelmingly Iranian and small-sample, with high heterogeneity in the meta-analyses; GRADE assessment of cardiovascular meta-analyses ranged from low to very low. The whole-sesame LDL meta-analysis is null. Effect sizes shrink markedly in normotensive, normolipidaemic populations — these trials selected for metabolic disease, so the effect for the general well-reader is smaller. The most striking BP and lipid effects are from oil-substitution trials in cultures where the comparator is ghee or another saturated fat; substituting sesame oil for olive oil in a Western diet captures less of that effect. No long-term mortality endpoint exists. Sesame's calcium is mostly oxalate-bound and partly inaccessible; its presence in "high-calcium plant food" lists overstates its bone case. The allergy risk, while small, is non-trivial in absolute numbers (~1.5 million Americans) and the FASTER Act exists because reactions can be severe.

Author's call. Sesame and tahini are a low-cost, high-precedent, mildly cardioprotective food whose mechanism is solid and whose effect sizes are real but population-dependent. The honest pitch is "a useful add to a Mediterranean / Middle-Eastern pattern, with measurable BP and lipid signal in hypertensive and dyslipidaemic readers and a smaller signal in healthy ones; calcium and magnesium contribution genuine but not transformative for bone." Not a treatment; an upgrade to the default condiment / spread / sauce layer of the diet. Evidence quality rates 3 — multiple meta-analyses with consistent direction, but heterogeneous, small-trial-dominated, and Iranian-trial-heavy. Controversy is low: the field broadly agrees this is a beneficial whole food; the question is magnitude, not direction.

Stakeholder + incentive map

Commercial incentive. Tahini manufacturers (Soom, Seed + Mill, Joyva, Middle-Eastern import brands), sesame-seed importers, and a small supplement market for sesamin isolate. Modest aggregate revenue; no industry lobbying scale comparable to dairy or soy.
Cultural / community incentive. Mediterranean and Middle-Eastern cuisine advocacy organisations, the broader "Mediterranean diet" health-research community, MIND-diet authors. These have soft credibility but no commercial conflict on sesame specifically.
Skeptic / counter-incentive. Allergy-advocacy organisations pushed sesame onto the FDA major-allergen list, correctly. Some hulled-tahini commercial framing minimises the oxalate / bioavailability nuance.
Research incentive. Iranian nutrition science (where most trials originate) has a domestic interest in studying culturally-relevant whole foods; this is not a flaw but a sample-population caveat.

Population variability

Baseline status. Largest BP and lipid responses in pre-hypertensive, hypertensive, and dyslipidaemic populations; smaller in normotensive normolipidaemic readers. Largest inflammatory-marker responses in elevated-baseline-CRP populations.
Diabetes. Sesame produces additional glycaemic-control improvements in T2D (HbA1c -0.75 to -0.99%) — out-of-scope here but reinforces the cardiometabolic story Asgary et al. 2023.
Sex and life stage. Postmenopausal women have a plausible (mechanism-rooted, evidence-thin) additional bone signal via lignan phytoestrogen activity. Pregnancy and breastfeeding: no concerns at culinary doses; sesamin-isolate supplements have no safety data in these populations.
Trial population skew. The literature is dominantly Iranian and Asian; Western-population trials are sparser. Effect transportation is plausible but not formally confirmed.
Allergy. ~0.23% prevalence; once present, lifelong avoidance is the management; cross-reactivity with peanuts and tree nuts is common.

Knowledge gaps

No long-term mortality or hard-endpoint cardiovascular outcome trial for sesame as a dietary intervention exists. No bone-mineral-density RCT in postmenopausal women using sesame. The hulled-vs-unhulled bioavailability difference for calcium has not been quantified in a head-to-head human trial. Dose-response curves for BP and LDL are loose — the cluster around 25–40 g/day is where the trials happened, not necessarily the optimum. No trial directly compares tahini, whole seeds, and sesame oil as different delivery vehicles; the literature treats them as substitutable when they probably aren't.

Score lands at ~24 (longevity 2, evidence 3, health_short_term 2, burdens both 1, applicability 4). Below the 40 dream-narrative threshold and the honest hook is informational / a small-but-cheap-and-real cardiovascular nudge rather than aspiration or relief, so the dek and tagline are written straight.

Holding to the brief. The five named consequences (LDL, blood pressure, antioxidant markers, bone minerals, inflammation) are each covered in mechanism and evidence; the bone-mineral angle additionally surfaces in misconceptions for the hulled-vs-unhulled bioavailability question. None silently dropped.
beauty_cumulative dropped to 0. Originally scored a 1, but no trial in the dossier ties sesame to long-term skin or hair endpoints; the contribution is theoretical via general cardiovascular pattern and not strong enough to anchor a paragraph in the body. Score-tracks-body rule (entry.md §1a, meta.md §5) made dropping it cleaner than fabricating a thin section.
Out-of-scope choices. Sesame's effect on glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes (HbA1c -0.75 to -0.99 in Asgary 2023) is real and meta-analysed but lives in the diabetes-nutrition entries; cited once in evidence to anchor the dose-responsive-to-baseline pattern, not deepened. Pure sesamin isolate as a supplement is on the periphery — referenced only because the cleanest LDL signal comes from sesamin-only trials, but the entry's substance is whole sesame and tahini as food. Halva and other sesame confections are in scope as forms but not separately analysed; the sugar load shifts the calculus.
Hulled vs. unhulled. Surfaced in misconceptions rather than given its own section. There's no head-to-head human bioavailability trial to anchor a deeper treatment, and the hulled supermarket tahini is what most readers will actually buy. Flag for follow-up if a comparison trial appears.
Population skew in the trial base. Most of the BP and lipid evidence is from Iranian and broader Asian cohorts; effect-size transportation to Western populations is plausible but not formally confirmed. Captured in research's population variability rather than the article — felt like a footnote that would distract a reader from the cleaner protocol takeaway.
No stakes or payoff section. The substance's effect is in lab numbers, not felt experience; writing a felt-experience forecast of "what life looks like with sesame" would either ring false (no real day-to-day shift) or moralise. The dek already handles the realistic framing ("the numbers move; you don't actually feel any different").
Contraindications kept conservative. Did not populate the closed-vocabulary contraindications list — the only real one is sesame allergy itself, which isn't in the allowed-token set. Handled in the article's contraindications section as a warning callout with the FDA labelling context.
Rating hesitation. Longevity at 2, not 3: no hard-endpoint trial exists for sesame alone, the BP / LDL / inflammation effects route through the same mechanisms that drive Mediterranean-pattern mortality reductions but sesame is a small slice of that pattern. Evidence at 3, not 4: meta-analyses are consistent but the trial base is dominated by small, single-region, low-GRADE studies.
Future-link candidates. olive-oil, mediterranean-diet, ldl-cholesterol, magnesium, dietary-calcium, sesame-allergy. Cross-link once they exist.